Tobruk - Dec 22,1911

Durbar of King George V

The Great Coronation Durbar of December 12th,1911

The Colonial Capital of Calcutta is moved to Delhi, as the British attempt to counteract Indian Independence and Home Rule movements. Anti-colonial sentiments would be exploited by the Central Powers in WWI, as well as drive alliance strategies. Watch the events surronding the crowning of King George V as the Emperor of India, in the third and last Durbar of 1911.

Political Chaos Threatens China

From the New York Times, December 5, 1911. News of the Independence Struggle in China. Note the author's assessment of the attitude towards suspected attrocities between Eastern and Western cultures. The same Western culture that would wage chemical warfare in a few short years.

POLITICAL CHAOS THREATENS CHINA

Insurgents Unable to Agree - Hope That Sun Yat Sen Will Prove Able to Lead Them.

̶

Cost of Struggle Terrible

Famine and Poverty in Most of the Country - Foreigners No Longer Safe - Industry Crippled.

SHANGHAI, Dec. 5 - Each day brings keener apprehension that China is drifting into political chaos. Although the fundamental aims of the revolutionary movement are worthy, they are brought to naught by lack of cohesion, lack of funds, and lack of a real leader. The situation inspires most pessimistic forebodings.
   The revolutionary juntas here are now marking time, awaiting the arrival of Dr. Sun Yat Sen, who is expected at any mmoment. It is hoped that he may prove to be the leader that every one is seeking.
   The fall of Han-Yang last week proves to have been due entirely to the wholesale desertions of rebel troops enrolled in the Hu-Nan Province. Some say that the soldiers were bought by Yuan Shi-Kai, but most attribute the jealousies between the people of Hu-Nan and Hu-Pe.

China 1911

   The breathing spell following the facical termination of the Nanking campaign, coupled with the armistice at Hankow, affords an opportunity to look at the whole situation. The complete collapse of the Imperial Governement is regarded here as imminent, and there is nothing yet stable to take its place. The revolutionists have thus far been incapable of affecting any cohesion among themselves, and unless Sun Yat Sen proves to be the man of the hour, they will be found far less efficient if called upon to take on the responsibility of a national Government.
   The cost of the struggle thus far has been far greater than is easily realized. Apart from the losses of the battlefield, it has plunged a majority of the provinces into poverty and famine, it has stopped all commerce and trade, crippled agriculture and industry, and diverted almost every penny of tax revenue from the purpose of peace.
   The moral effect upon the people is another serious matter. Reports from the interior indicate the that conditions everywhere are growing worse. Briganage is almost the only profitable profession left to a people hitherto peaceable and orderly. Millions are starving within a radius of a few hundred miles of Shanghai. In increasing number there come to this city accounts of robberies and violence, and even the killing of Europeans has ceased to be exceptional. Close observers are more and more uneasy regarding the safety of foreigners in the immediate future.
   The situation is complex. Facts are hard to get at. Both sides are financially close to bankruptcy and realize that their first need is to establish credit. In the hope of obtaining assistance abroad they are unsparing in the use of legitimate and illegitimate means to influence opinion. News is sensored and colored to suit the purposes of those in control. Some of the accounts of barbarities and atrocities have been exaggerated, but it must be remembered that many things which make the Occidental shudder cause no disturbance to the nerves of the Oriental.
   A group of reformers is now holding a convention here, claiming to represent the entire country. The delegates assert that they are authorized by fourteen provinces to act as a provisional legislative body. The convention has accomplished little so far, owing mainly to the lack of cohesion which has been evidence at Wu-Change and Nanking. The begging attitude of the Peking Government elicits only sneers from the delegates, who have devoted much of their time to the selction of a capital city for the proposed republic.
   Wu Ting-Fang, who was formerly Minister at Washington, and has allied himself with the rebels, says that all existing differences between the factions will be reconciled. He declares that the final meeting of the National Convention will be held at Nanking, which has beenselected as the future capital of the Republic of China.

Lt. Giulio Gavotti drops first bomb in combat

November 1, the first ever aerial bomb was dropped by Sottotenente Giulio Gavotti, on Turkish troops in Libya, from an early model of Etrich Taube aircraft.^[5]

Airplane first used in a war

October 23, 1911: The aeroplane was employed for the first time in actual warfare. Lt. Piazza of the Italian Army made an air reconnaissance from Tripoli. He circled over the desert in a Nieuport monoplane and located the Turkish infantry, entrenched in Zanzur Oasis, between twelve and twenty miles from Tripoli.

Xinhai Revolution

The Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution (Chinese: 辛亥革命; pinyin: Xīnhài Gémìng), also known as the Revolution of 1911 or the Chinese Revolution, began with the Wuchang Uprising on October 10, 1911 and ended with the abdication of Emperor Puyi on February 12, 1912

ITALY SHELLS ALBANIA TOWN; MANY KILLED; Destroyers Wreck Camps and Barracks at St. Jean de Medua, Near Montenegro.

ROME, Oct. 7. -- A dispatch from Brindisi to the Messagero says that the two Italian destroyers, Artigliere and Fuciliere, stopped an Austrian mail steamer near St. Jean de Medua. Commander Biscaretti went aboard the steamer, his boat carrying a white flag.

Italy Declares War on Turkey

An ultimatum was presented to the Ottoman government led by the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) party on the night of 26–27 September. Through Austrian intermediation, the Ottomans replied with the proposal of transferring control of Libya without war, maintaining a formal Ottoman suzerainty. This suggestion was comparable to the situation in Egypt, which was under formal Ottoman suzerainty, but was actually controlled by the United Kingdom. Giolitti refused, and war was declared on September 29, 1911.

Pyotr Stolypin Assasinated

In September 1911, Stolypin travelled to Kiev, despite police warnings that an assassination plot was afoot. He travelled without bodyguards and even refused to wear his bullet-proof vest.
On September 14 [O.S. September 1] 1911, while he was attending a performance of Rimsky-Korsakov's The Tale of Tsar Saltan at the Kiev Opera House in the presence of the Tsar and his two eldest daughters, the Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatiana, Stolypin was shot twice, once in the arm and once in the chest, by Dmitri Bogrov (born Mordekhai Gershkovich), who was both a leftist radical and an agent of the Okhrana. Stolypin was reported to have coolly risen from his chair, removed his gloves and unbuttoned his jacket, exposing a blood-soaked waistcoat. He sank into his chair and shouted 'I am happy to die for the Tsar' before motioning to the Tsar in his imperial box to withdraw to safety. Tsar Nicholas remained in his position and in one last theatrical gesture Stolypin blessed him with a sign of the cross. The next morning the distressed Tsar knelt at Stolypin's hospital bedside and repeated the words 'Forgive me'. Stolypin died four days after being shot. Bogrov was hanged 10 days after the assassination; the judicial investigation was halted by order of Tsar Nicholas II. This gave rise to suggestions that the assassination was planned not by leftists, but by conservative monarchists who were afraid of Stolypin's reforms and his influence on the Tsar, though this has never been proven. Stolypin was buried in the Pechersk Monastery (Lavra) in Kiev (nowadays capital of Ukraine).

Kaiser leaves for Naval Review amidst Anti-War Protests

a great demonstration was held as a protest against war between France and Germany at Treptow Park near Berlin.

BELGIUM FEARS WAR

August 30, 1911: From the Montreal Gazette:

BELGIUM FEARS WAR

Prepares For Hostilities Between France and Germany

  Liege, Belgium, August 30. - An intense sensation has been created among the Belgian people, especially near the boundaries of France and Germany, by the military precautions which are being put into effect by the Belgian Government.
  A military council was held yesterday at the villa of Lieutenant-General Hellebaut, the minister of war, at which the commandants of all the frontier defences, and other military authorities, were present.

  The conference was called to preserve the neutrality of the country in the event of war between France and Germany so as to prevent the violation of Belgian territory by either combatants, or by Great Britain, should that country become involved in the conflict. Nothing so far has been disclosed regarding the decision of the council.
   Great military activity has been noticeable during the last few days. Large supplies of shells for the frontier forts and rifle ammunition have been sent forward, and additional batteries of artillery and rapid-fire guns have been shipped to reinforce the posts on all roads leading to the German frontier. Specific instructions, it is understood, have been sent to the commanders of troops concerning the blowing up of bridges and the destruction of railways should war break out.

  From Brussels, Belgium, August 30. - Two special trains, carrying sixty field guns, twelve Hotchkiss guns, and five caricads of ammunition, arrived at Namur, a strongly fortified city thiry-six miles southeast of Brussels, today from Antwerp.
  The Government appears to be making numerous rearrangements in the army, especially strengthening the eastern garrisons.Disquieting rumors are afloat as to the prospects of war between France and Germany. Several Belgian journals affirm that Adolphe Messimy, the French minister of war, has caused the attention of the Belgium Government to be directed to the weakness and neglected condition of this country's defences on the German frontier.
 
 
  

Kaiser Wilhelm II delivers Place in the Sun speech

The phrase "our place in the sun", describing one's belief in an entitlement, was used by Kaiser Wilhelm II in a speech delivered at Hamburg "No one can dispute with us the place in the sun that is our due". The statement was of the Weltpolitik (World Policy)  that would make Germany a large, strong, and unbeatable empire in every possible way, through military and naval buildup.

From the New York Times:

KAISER FOR MORE NAVY

To Keep for Germany Her Due Place, He Tells Hamburgers

Hamburg, Aug. 27 - The Senate gave a banquet to-night to the Kaiser, who, in the course of a speech on the effect of competition on international commerce, said:
  "If we understood the enthusiasm of the people of Hamburg alright, I think I can assume that it is their opinion that our navy should be further strengthened, so that we may be sure that no one can dispute with us the place in the sun that is our due."

Organized Worker Strikes against Chinese Government

 SZECHUAN PROVINCE STRIKES AGAINST CHINESE GOVERNMENT

Led by the anti-foreign-loan organization Tong Chi Huei (Patriot's Society), Chinese citizens living in Chengdu (成都市) walked off of their jobs in protest over the Imperial Government's agreement with foreign nations to build a railroad through the Sichuan (Szechuan) Province, after businesses there had raised $20,000,000 to build it themselves. "Few people in this country realized when the brief telegrams reported the occurrence of a strike," wrote an American author, Andrew Melville Pooley later,"that the beginning of the end of the Manchu Dynasty had arrived."^[1] The Xinhai Revolution would begin six weeks later.

The causes of the strike, was felt to be the result of granting perceived unlimited access to foreign business concerns to Chinese resources, in contradiction to a plan to return Chinese resources back to the Chinese

Chinese Cartoon

people (rights recovery movement), as well as an increased centralization of power and revenue in Peking, at the expense of the provinces. The Szechuan province was especially effected, because the people had organized to build their own railway, and had raised their own capital at the expense of great hardship, which ultimately resulted in embezzlement ^[2]of the raised funds. With neither the money raised, nor a railway, the exasperated citizens of the Province preceded to fight back, at first, with passive resistance in the form of a general strike.






1. A. M. Pooley, Japan's Foreign Policies (Dodd, Mead and Company, 1920) p60
2. Frederick McCormick, The Flowery Republic (D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1913)

British Military Leaders Strategize for Possible War with Germany

Admiral Sir Arthur Wilson

The ongoing Agadir (Moroccan Crisis), prompted a secret meeting of the Committee of Imperial Defence. It was convened by Prime Minister Asquith to discuss overall military strategy for war against Germany. Field Marshal Sir Henry Wilson and the First Sea Lord Admiral Sir Arthur Wilson, the leaders of the British Army and the Royal Army, respectively, presented their opposing views on how a war in continental Europe should be conducted.

The Royal Army presented  the probable moves of the German Army and the British counter moves, while the Royal Navy presented the proposed naval operations. The Admiralty was convinced that a naval blockade of Germany, would force Germany to capitulate, and a British Expeditionary force would not be required in France, but rather to be used to land on the German coast.^[1] The Army dismissed this plan, as did then Home Secretary and future First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill.

1. Anthony John Watts, The Royal Navy: An Illustrated History (Arms and Armour Press, London, 1994)

France Refuses Germany's Demands

Semi-Official Note Calls (Germany's) Territorial Desires in Congo 'Manifestly Excessive.'

 Ambassador (Jules) Cambon will return to Berlin toward the end of August, probably about the 28th. In the meantime he will have in Paris several conferences with the Premier, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and the Minister of the Colonies, concerning the subjects of his conversations with Herr von Kiderlen-Weachter, the German Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Jules Cambon

  Without endevouring to prejudge the precise results, it is believed that the difficulties will find a solution. It is, however, true that such solution will depend upon two conditions: first, that the rights of France in Morocco be recognized without dimunition by Germany, and regulated definitely in a manner to avoid all future complications; and, second, that Germany reduce her territorial  desires in the French Congo, which appear to be manifestly Excessive.

From The Temps of France:
"France, which sometimes has fallen in with the illusion of universal peace, has ceased to regard as impossible a European conflict. We are convinced that nobody in Europe wishes such a conflict which would exceed in extent and horror those of past generations, but we believe also that certain diplomatic methods founded on mistaken psychology may render inevitable a war which no one wants."
The Temps notes with satisfaction that Premier Caillaux can depend upon the national support of national sentiment.

POTSDAM AGREEMENT SIGNED BY GERMANY AND RUSSIA

POTSDAM AGREEMENT SIGNED IN ST. PETERSBURG

ENDS RUSSIAN OPPOSITION TO THE BAGDAD RAILWAY

Mere hours after the Russian backed deposed Persian Shah's forces are routed, Germany and Russia signed the Potsdam Agreement (of 1911) in St. Petersburg, Russia, completing negotiations started the previous year between Nicholas II of Russia and Wilhelm II of Germany in Potsdam in early November 1910.
Britain's Foreign Secretary, Edward Grey,  was seriously alarmed by the Russo-German agreement, with the fear that the British trade dominance over Germany could be affected, as well as making available oil reserves to Germany. The building of the Bagdad Railway is also cited as one of the contributing causes of World War One.

The Kaiser and The Tsar

The two monarchs discussed the ambitious German project of the Baghdad Railway, widely expected to give Berlin considerable geopolitical clout in the Fertile Crescent. Against the background of the Persian Constitutional Revolution, Russia was anxious to control the prospective Khanaqin-Tehran branch of the railway. The two powers settled their differences which would give Russia a free hand in Northern Iran. As Russian Foreign Secretary, Sergei Sazonov hoped, the first railway connecting Persia to Europe would provide Russia with leverage over its southern neighbor.


From the Russian Newspaper Novoye Vremya (Но́вое вре́мя), there were concerns at that time that published documents had indicated that Russia's obligations in the agreement were greater than the gains. The time frame set for the construction of the Russian portion of the Persian Railway from Tehran to the border city of Khanaqin,  placed a significant burden on Russian, because Russian trade with Persia would be significantly limited if a railroad between Tehran and Russian was not built simultaneously. 

The Baghdad Railway, from Constantinople to Baghdad, as well as the spur from Baghdad to Khanaqin would not be completed until well after the conclusion of  the War. Russian only partially built sections between Tehran and Khanaqin, ending its obligations at the start of the war. Had the railroad been completed, Ottoman troops would have gained greater access through the region. The Railroad may have changed the eventual course of the war.

Proposed Route through the Middle East

 

Germany Breaks Off Moroccan Crisis Negotiations

When looking back at the events as they took place 100 years ago, it is often that very similar events, in the exact same locations, are taking place 100 years later. One interesting example is of civil unrest in England. Riots against shop owners and labor strikes, provoked police to use force to overcome the violence. One hundred years later, the same headlines are seen in newspapers around the world, and the English Prime Minister is again anguished, whether it be Asquith or Cameron.

One hundred years ago, Germany actually cited the unrest in Great Britain as a reason for breaking off negotiations in the Moroccan Crisis. This would also begin a period of a more belligerent stance and warlike posturing by Germany.

Mongolia Seeks Russian support for Independence Bid

Mongolian Delgation Seeks Russian Assistance for Independence from China

Bogd Gegeen

On August 15th, the Mongolian delegation headed by Prince General Ch'in Wang Handdorj arrived in the Russian Capital of St. Petersburg. On the next day, the delegation is received by the Russian Foreign Minister, Sergei Sazonov. The Mongols hand him a letter from Bogd Gegeen (Bogd Khan) in which the Mongolian religous leader asks for Russian help on recognition of  independence and official protection by Russia from China,  as well as assistance in the development of trade, railways,  and communications systems. Besides Bogd Gegeen, the letter is signed by Tüsheet Dashnyam Khan, Tsetsen Khan Navaanneren, and Sayin Noyon Khan Namnansuren, Mongolian tribal (aymak), and dynastic leaders.

Map of Mongolia



Mongolia provided a buffer between China and Russia, and the purveying thought that a power, such as Japan, may take over the Russian bases in Mongolia, if assistance was not provided. ^[1] The Mongolian independence movement and influence by Russia and the Soviet Union would extend well beyond World War One.


[1] Urgunge Onon, Derrick Pritchatt. Asia's First Modern Revolution: Mongolia proclaims its Indepedence in 1911. E.J. Brill, The Netherlands

JAPANESE ADM. TOGO SEES USS UTAH BEING BUILT IN PHILADELPHIA

Admiral Count Togo

On this date 100 years ago today,  Admiral Count Heichachiro Togo, Japanese Naval Hero in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, in the battle of the Sea of Japan, that decimated the Russian Naval fleet, visited the Navy shipyards in Philadelphia. His visit was highly celebrated. He was treated both as a hero, and royalty, as he toured the United States, principally, Naval sites. He was at a dinner hosted by President Taft, where overtures of a Japanese and American arbitration treaty were made.  

His visit had its irony: He became chief tutor to Emperor Hirohito, Japanese Emperor during World War II; of greater irony was the fact that he landed in the United States aboard the Lusitania, whose sinking in 1915, shifted American neutrality; the ultimate irony may be that he toured the completion of the USS Utah, that would be bombed in Pearl Harbor, a little over 30 years later, by the Empire of Japan, and in whose wreckage 54 men are still entombed.

From the New York Times:

TOGO SEES NEW SHIPS.

 Much Impressed by War Craft Building in Philadelphia.

PHILADELPHIA, Aug. 10. -- Admiral Count Togo to-day inspected the battleships Utah and Arkansas, which are being built for our navy by the New York Shipbuilding Company on the Delaware River. In the slip next to the American ships he saw the Morena, the large battleship which is being built for the Argentine Government. She has a displacement of 28,000 tons and is the largest man-of-war yet undertaken.
  The ships made a deep impression upon the Japanese Admiral, and he looked enviously at the young naval officers at his side, whose future on the sea is yet before them.

USS Utah hit by torpedo in Pearl Harbor

   A formal call on Mayor Reyburn at City Hall, which was returned half and hour later br the Mayor, began a day of  activity from Admiral Togo. He inspected the Philadelphia Naval Yard and saw the battleship Minnesota in dry dock and the Kearsarge a few yards away. He was entertained at luncheon by Capt. A.W. Grant, Commandant of the Philadelphia Naval Yard. All the naval officers stationed hear were present. After an exchange of toasts to the Emperor of Japan and the President of the United States, the Marine Band played strains from the Japanese National anthem and "The Star Spangled Banner." The party then sailed up the Delaware to the ships yards, where a salute of nineteen guns were fired. The Japanese Admiral for the first time since this tour began soke of the oppressive heat.
  On the trip up the Delaware River Admiral Togo talked with the naval officers in the partry about the Japanese who have been educated at Annapolis. The Admiral said that almost all these officers had won distinction in Japan.
  A change in the itinerary of Admiral Togo will enable him to see the fleet now manoeuvring (sic) off Provincetown, Mass. When his party arrives in Boston Thursday, Aug 17, the Admiral will call upon the Mayor. He will then proceed onm a torpedo boat destroyer to Provincetown, where he will visit the fleet. After being entertained at luncheon on board the battleship Connecticut, the flagship of the squadron, the party will return to Boston, and on Friday visit the Navy Yard.

Albanians Accept Turkish Concessions

August 4, 1911: New York Times Reports that War between Turkey and Montenegro is avoided.

ALBANIANS PLACABLE.

Decide to Accept Concessions Turkey Offered and Cease Hostilities.

Cettinje, Montenegro, Aug 3. The Mallisori tribesmen have they decided to accept the concessions made them as a condition that they cease hostilities and return to their homes in Albania. The exodus from Podgoritz, thiry-eight miles north of Scutari, began to-day.
    The Montenegrin Minister of War told the tribesmen that it was the sincere desire of King Nicholas that the revolt cease and that they return forthwith to their homes, in order that they might not fling away concessions with which they should be satisfied. The revolutionists replied that they had little faith in Turkey's promises of amnesty, but would obey absolutely the King's advise.

Peace Treaty Signed

August 3, 1911: From the Washington Times, News of the Impeding Arbitration Treaty between the US, England and France

PEACE TREATY WILL BE SIGNED THIS AFTERNOON

Knox and Bryce Will Affix Signatures At White House.

By J. FRED ESSARY
When Secretary Knox (Philander C. Knox), Ambassador Viscount James Bryce And Ambassador Jules Jusserand sign the arbitration treaties at 3 o'clock this afternoon, binding the United States, Great Britain, and France to submit all differences of whatever nature to arbitration, the most advanced step for international peace in the history of the world will be taken.

   This ceremony will take place in the President's library at the Executive Mansion (former name of the White House, not known as the White House until 1901 as named by Theodore Roosevelt) and at the President's palace in Paris simultaneously. The French ambassador is abroad. Ambassador Bryce returned to Washington from Maine for the excahnge of the signatures.
   As soon as the treaty can be received from Paris the President will send both the French and the English instruments to the Senate for ratification. They may be acted on during the extra session or they may have to go over until December.

Party at Ceremony.

   President Taft, Secretary of State Knox, Ambassador Bryce, Chandler Anderson, solicitor of the State Department, and the great authority on international law, and the French Consul General will compose the immediate party at the White House Ceremony. The Secretary and the British Ambassador sign the heavy scroll in duplicate.

   The French treaty will be signed by Secretary with Viscounte Saint Phalle, vice consul at New York with witness. President Taft took no part in the preliminary exchange.

   Surrounding the immediate party will be the members of the President's Cabinet. Behind them will stand a number of newspaper men whom the President has invited to witness the impressive international event. There will be no other invited guests.

   The signing will take place in the most historic chamber of the White House. This is the private study of the President. It was here that the treaty of peace between this country and Spain was signed, and it was here that President Lincoln held many of the gravest conferences of civil war times.

Bound to Peace.

   By today's act the three countries involved bind themselves to submit to arbitration all issues of vital interest. An d these issues include questions of national honor and questions of territory. No such treaty has ever been negotiated between two great powers.

   In the past a question of national honor, an insult of one nation by another, was regarded as a matter beyond arbitration. Only a resort to arms was regarded as an honorable means of avenging such a blow at a nation's pride.

   And the same thing was true of questions involving territory. An invasion or an appropriation of one nation's territory by another was not a matter, according to the standards of the past. which may be submitted to an arbitration court for adjustment. If one people placed a hostile foot on the territory of another, the act meant war and nothing else.

ALL CHANGED.

 

   Today, however, the three greatest powers in the world agree among themselves that they will submit all such questions to arbitration.

   That other nations will fall into line and negotiate similar treaties is a foregone conclusion. The moral force of the three of the greatest peoples of the Earth in such a pact will be felt, and Germany, Japan, and Russia are expected soon to enter the brotherhood.

   From the standpoint of the world's peace and the world's happiness, therefore, today's simple ceremony in the White House is probably the most important move in a century. History was made when the signatures were exchanged between the representatives of these powerful nations.

 

Turkey Warns of War on Montenegro

July 31, 1911: In response to increasing attack of Albanians Christian tribesmen, know as Malissori, on Turkish troops, and their fleeing to the mountains of Montenegro, where many ethnic Albanians live, the Ottoman government has threatened action again the tiny country of Montenegro.

TURKS MENACE WAR ON MONTENEGRINS

60,000 Troops Massed on Border and Ultimatum Ready, London Correspondent Says.

TO RISK INTERVENTION

Assert That King Nicholas Must Cease Harboring Malissori or Have His Realm Invaded.

Special Cable to THE NEW YORK TIMES.

LONDON. July 31. — The correspondent of the London Times at Constantinople says the Council of Ministers has decided to telegraph to Sadreddin Bey, Turkish Minister at Cettinje, instructing him to summon the Malissori to surrender by Thursday and to inform the Montenegrin Government that if it continues to harbor them the troops, who are much excited, will be obliged to pursue the Malissori as far as the frontier.

Malissori: fighting for Albanian homeland

   A dispatch from Salonica to the Daily Mail says:
   "The appointment of Abdulla Pasha to the command of the Turkish troops in Albania, with title of Commander in Chief of the Western Army, may be regarded as the first step on the part of Turkey toward putting an end on the northwestern frontier. Abdulla Pasha will be in command of  a force of 60,000 men, with three mountain batteries and three field batteries, and I am able to state on good authority that immediately Abdulla Pasha has reached his headquarters on the Montenegrin frontier the Ottoman Government will send an ultimatum to King Nicholas of Montenegro demanding the cessation of hospitality toward the Malissori tribe.
   "Should the presence of 50,000 or 60,000 Turkish troops ready to cross the frontier fail to convince the King of the desirability of a change of tactics, the Turks intend to declare war and invade Montenegro, disregarding the possible result of European intervention. All the little Balkan States are keeping a careful watch on the situation and are ready to take a hand in the game in case of the outbreak of hostilities."

French Prime Minister Undermines Negotiations in Moroccan Crisis

July 27, 1911: Another communique between Prime Minister Caillaux and German Foreign Ministers, soon to be intercepted by French Officials.

Only after German codes were obtained during World War I, could the full texts of dispatches between the German Foreign Minister in France and German Officials show the extent of secret negotiations between French Prime Minister Joseph Caillaux and the German Government. In dispatches between July 26 and 27th of 1911, Caillaux feared that ceding the entire Congo coast, in exchange for German recognition of French authority in Morocco, would be humiliating to France and would infuriate the English, who wished to limit German colonial growth.

Through the mediator, Hyacinthe-Alphonse Fondère, French Colonial Explorer and businessman, the secret negotiations, which possibly lead to great monetary gains by the prime minister, eventually did lead to Germany expanding their territorial gains in the Congo.

Intercepted by French officials, the French Foreign Minister of Foreign Affairs, Justin de Selves, would become furious at the Prime Minister.  The documents were ultimately obtained by the French newspaper, Le Figaro, leading to speculation that Caillaix's wife murdered the editor of the paper to prevent release of these very explosives communiques, in 1914. Ultimately, their release was suppressed until after the war.

To the Foreign Office, Berlin

Alfonse Fondère

 "Caillaux has charged  Fondère to inform the embassy that he is moved by a sincere desire to come to an understanding with us, and that he would prefer to bring an agreement on broad lines, settling all differences which have arisen between us during the past years. This would help bring him to justify before public opinion the cession of Colonial territory, by pointing out the great advantage of suppressing all matters of friction with us.
   The greater the extent of the agreement and the larger the number of different objects embraced by it, the more able would France be to show a spirit of accommodation in the cession of Colonial territory; whereas a deal limited to Morocco and the Congo would cause here an impression of humiliation and could hardly be achieved in a form satisfactory to us.

Wilhelm von Schoen

   Caillaux asks for an inquiry to be made in Berlin as to what would be desired n the most different possible directions. What he is thinking of - although these would be but small concessions - is a German Chairman of the Ottoman Debt, the retrocession of 30 per cent. of the stock of the Bagdad Railway to the Paris Bourse (stock exchange) and an understanding about railways in the East. He has also considered the possibility of ceding to us the French possessions in Oceanica (Oceania). I am sending at midday tomorrow the Counselor of Embassy in order to give you a verbal report.

Caillaux urges strongly that nothing about these overtures should be communicated to Cambon(French Ambassador to Germany)."  Signed Schoen (Wilhelm von Schoen German ambassador in Paris)  

Germany Favors Treaty with U.S.

From the New York Times: Continued Arbitration by The Hague

Berlin, July 24, 1911. - The German Government has finished its study of the American-German arbitration treaty proposals and has formulated its comment thereon, which comment has been forwarded to Washington as a basis of negotiation. An official statement of the nature of the German views cannot be obtained here, but there is reason to believe that they are favorable.
   Though the arbitration negotiations between the United States and Germany are not so far advanced as those between the former country and Great Britain and France, this is explained by the fact that Germany received the American proposals later than the other countries, and is not to be construed as due to a hostile attitude on the part of this Government.

Sun Yat-Sen visits San Francisco

Statue of Sun Yat-Sen

July 22, 1911: San Francisco - Dr. Sun Yat-Sen, with a purported $325,000 bounty on his head from the Chinese government, visited the Chinese community in San Francisco. The head of the Young China movement stayed for some time, disregarding Chinese spies and government inspectors. The purpose of the visit was to strengthen  the Chinese Revolutionary movement by uniting different Chinese social and political groups.

Emperor Puyi

The secret organization was gaining strength inside China, lead by the Western educated doctor, who sought a representative government for the Chinese people, currently led by the Qing or Manchu Emperor Puyi, and ruled by his regent the Dowager Empress Longyu. The doctor surreptitiously moves throughout the United States, strengthening his forces and instigating disturbances, such as that reported in Shantung.

One example of a reported meeting was with the Gee Gong Tong, the ancient Chinese Masonic Society, that had recently adopted the constitutional ideas of the Young China leaders..

Lloyd George's Mansion House Speech

July 21, 1911:
In response to Germany's perceived aggressive actions at Agadir in Morocco, and French compromise in settling the dispute by negotiating Germany's expansion of Togo and Kamerun (Cameroon), in exchange for the acknowledgement of the Morocco as a French Protectorate, David Lloyd George, future British Prime Minister during World War I, at the behest of the British Foreign Minister, Sir Edward Grey, dedicated a portion of his now famous Mansion House Speech, to remind both Germany and France, that England would not be left out of world affairs:

Personally I am a sincere advocate of all means which would lead to the settlement of international disputes by methods such as those which civilization has so successfully set up for the adjustment of differences between individuals, and I rejoice in my heart at the prospect of a happy issue to Sir Edward Grey's negotiations with the United States of America for the settlement of disputes which may occur in future between ourselves and our kinsmen across the Atlantic by some more merciful, more rational, and by a more just arbitrament than that of the sword.

But I am also bound to say this -- that I believe it is essential in the highest interests, not merely of

this country, but of the world, that Britain should at all hazards maintain her place and her prestige amongst the Great Powers of the world. Her potent influence has many a time been in the past, and may yet be in the future, invaluable to the cause of human liberty. It has more than once in the past redeemed Continental nations, who are sometimes too apt to forget that service, from overwhelming disaster and even from national extinction. I would make great sacrifices to preserve peace. I conceive that nothing would justify a disturbance of international good will except questions of the greatest national moment. But if a situation were to be forced upon us in which peace could only be preserved by the surrender of the great and beneficent position Britain has won by centuries of  heroism and achievement, by allowing Britain to be treated where her interests were vitally affected as if she were of no account in the Cabinet of nations, then I say emphatically that peace at that price would be a humiliation in tolerable for a great country like ours to endure. National honour is no party question. The security of our great international trade is no party question; the peace of the world is much more likely to be secured if all nations realize fairly what the conditions of peace must be. And it is because I have the conviction that nations are beginning to understand each other better, to appreciate one another's point of view more thoroughly, to be more ready to discuss calmly and dispassionately their differences, that I feel assured that nothing will happen between now and next year which will render it difficult for the chancellor of the exchequer in this place to respond to the toast proposed - of the continued prosperity of public peace.

France and England plan for mobilization against Germany

 July 20, 1911: On this date, Sir Henry Wilson, Director of Military Operations on the British General Staff, met in secret with General Auguste Dubail, French Army Chief of Staff, to formulate an  agreement for a joint plan to mobilize 150,000 men in the event that Germany declared war on either nation. Though the Dubail-Wilson plan did not become necessary in 1911, it would be used three years later when World War I broke out.

Per the Dubail-Wilson agreement, the British were to mobilize following intervention, specifying 150,000 men and 67,000 horses to be landed at Havre, Boulogne and Rouen between 4th-12th day of mobilization and be sent to Mauberge region and ready for action on 13th day.

Although it may appear that the agreement had been a result of Germany's actions in the Agadir crisis, it may also had been a result of war games,which indicated that Germany would have moved easily through Belgium and France unless there was early commitment of the British Expeditionary Force ^[1] .

^[1]Sanders, Charles W, Jr. "No Other Law: The French Army and the Doctrine of the Offensive", The Rand Corporation, 1987

Deposed Shah of Persia Returns to Reclaim Throne with Russian Aid

Shah Qajar of Iran

July 18, 1911:  Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar, the deposed Shah of Persia, landed at the Caspian Sea port of Astarabad (present day Gorgan, Iran) with an army in an attempt to regain the throne that he had lost in 1909. Apparently disguised, and carrying a fake passport, the Shah escaped to Persia with Russian-supplied guns, cannons and munitions, and Austrian cannons procured on a trip to Vienna, that had been packed in crates labeled "mineral water"^[1].

The Shah, based on an agreement between Russia and England, lived in exile in Odessa in Russia, after abdicating his throne to his 12 year old son. He had wanted to rescind the recently established Persian Constitution, and a civil war ensued, in 1909, between the constitutionalists and monarchists.  Russia had agreed to prevent the Shah from participating in political and other activities which could weaken the newly established monarchy and constitutional government. In exchange, the shah would receive an annual stipend of $82,500 ($2 million, today). Russian and England would have spheres of influence in Persia, as a result of the agreement, with Russian influence in the Northern part of the country, and England in the south, with the central part of the country under autonomous rule.

Upon landing, the Shah's brother and advisers, contacted loyal supporters and tribesmen, to march on Tehran and reclaim the throne.

Persia would be at the crossroads of World War One, with mixed allegiances and occupying forces in all parts of the country. Of particular interest are the newly developed oil fields.

Armenian Patriarch Hovhannes Arsharuni presents grievences to Ottoman Government

The Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople, Hovhannes Arscharouni (Յովհաննէս Արշարունի Իսթանպուլցի) presented a list of grievances to the Turkish government, demanding improvements on education, use of the Armenian language, the right to participate in military service, and the right to present Christians as witnesses in court proceedings in the Islamic nation. The government pledged reforms, which were blocked in the Ottoman parliament. In a letter to Turkey's Minister of Justice, the Patriarch also informs him about the illegal actions of the Turkish officials in the Armenian provinces, including murders and confiscation of property.

The jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople included 52 dioceses. The dioceses of Baghdad, Cyprus, Egypt, Bulgaria, Romania and Greece were among these dioceses.

• Agadir crisis: Germany's Foreign Minister Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechter summoned French Ambassador Jules Cambon to the Ministry and made the surprise demand that France cede its colony in the French Congo to Germany as a condition of German withdrawal from Morocco.^[30]

Anglo-Japanese Arbitration Treaty may be revised

 July 11, 1911: An article published by the Associated Press, reports on treaties negotiated between countries that would have disputes arbitrated by Court of Arbitration located in The Hauge, Netherlands. Difficulties in ratification by the U.S. Senate were caused by, among other concerns, that the agreement "...[takes] for granted that the proposed treaty is for the purpose of offending Germany".

The most interesting part of the article is Japan's stance that they would never war with England or the U.S.

From Tokio, Japan,
A revision of the Anglo-Japanese alliance is regarded as the inevitable outcome of the Anglo-American arbitration treaty. There is reason to believe that negotiations for such revision have been going on for several weeks.

Komura Jutarō 

It is reported that Great Britain propose to modify the clause providing for mutual assistance in the event of war, making the provision in applicable if either party to the alliance is fighting a nation with which the other has concluded a general arbitration treaty.
It is understood that Japan readily agreed to this proposition, and the Associated Press is informed that the readiness of the Japanese Government to accept the suggestion was due to its entire confidence that Japan will never be at war with either the United States or England.
The revision will probably involve the extension of the treaty alliance for fifteen or twenty years.

The alliance between England and Japan ends in 1923.

Royal Australian Navy formed

King George V, of Great Britain, granted the title of "Royal" for the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) and its Permanent Commonwealth Naval Forces (CNF) and the Royal Australian Naval Reserve.  Rear Admiral Sir William Rooke Creswell CNF,  was Australia's first Admiral to occupy the position, and would maintain the rank of Chief of Navy throughout WWI.

Under the Naval Defense Act of 1912, in the event of war, The Royal Australian Navy would be led by the British Royal Navy. The RAN would become the Australia Squadron of the Royal Navy with all ships and personnel under the direct control of the British Admiralty.

The new units of the Royal Australian Navy

New York Times presents the backdrop for the Agadir crisis

MOROCCO INVOLVES POWERS FROM TANGIER TO BAGDAD

Germany Cancels Her Agreement with France Concerning the Western Bulwark 

of Islam --- England Behind France, Berlin Aroused

By Stephen Bonsal. The Moroccan imbroglio is interesting from many points of view. Perhaps the most interesting is the belief held by so many foreign offices and editorial studies that all the bother and pother is really not about Morocco at all, but about the Balkans and the railway or Monsieur (Théophile) Del Cassé's return to public life; for it is by such indirect ways as these, unknown to our so slightly held shirt-sleeve diplomacy, that European statesmen proceed upon that terrible business in which the lives of so many millions of people - mere food for powder - are involved.

It was only yesterday (July 8) that Maximillian Harden, the great Berlin editor, announced that Germany had renounced all political pretensions of Morocco and would content herself with the open door, and his pronouncement, which seemed to inaugurate and era of good feeling that would soon overpass the limited sphere of the Moroccan question, was received by all the Western powers with much enthusiasm. For it is not forgotten by them, if it is by us, who only took part in a platonic and academic way in the Algeciras Conference, that six years have barely elapsed since France and Germany, or rather the two great groups of powers respectively associated with them, were about to fly at each other's throats, seemingly for the sake of Morocco - that decrepit kingdom, the last Western and wasting fragment of the once great Mohammedan Empire.

However this laboriously-built-up quarrel which many think had no very deep roots in real national interests, was composed. At first here was the Algeciras Conference, and later the Franco-German agreement which, to the minds of some optimists, settled the vexatious matter for all time. Germany, it was understood as a result of the agreement,  gave France a free hand in the military and political sense. She would acquiesce in any arrangement France saw fit to make with the unfortunate Sultans who had been succeeding one another on the throne of Malai Edriss in such kaleidoscopic succession. She was apparently perfectly agreeable to any regime in Morocco so long as her commercial interests in the country - not very important at the moment, but of great potential value - were safeguarded.

Not three years have passed since this apparently happy arrangement was made, and the fat is in the fire again. German public opinion is, or seems to be, terribly excited because of the dispatch by the French of a flying column to Fez, where it is feared, at least in Paris, that the officers of her military mission in that last citadel of Islam are in danger of meeting the fate of Gordon at Khartoum; certain it is that the rebellious tribes are on the warpath, and the little Sultan is powerless to keep them in check. A large fraction of the German press is  greatly vexed, and those papers that are supposed to be in closest touch with the German Foreign Minister do not hesitate to give the lie direct to  French assurances. They assure that the French Embassador has been talked to very solemnly by Herr von Schoen; that the German Foreign Office is convinced, and has not hesitated to say so, that nothing worth protecting in Morocco is in danger; that there is no sign of anarchy - that is, not more than is usual in this trouble-ridden country; that no European lives are in jeopardy, and that the probable fate of Fez and its European colony, militarily as well as civil, should excite no misgivings.

The German press, divided on the other questions, is united in saying that the situation is one without danger, except from the fear of unconsidered action on the part of France. "France is not merely trying to pacify the country," say the wise editors, "but she is hoodwinking Europe while she seeks to 'Tunisize' it."

Even in the Prussian Chamber Deputies the Moroccan bogey has been trotted out again and Herman von Rath, who is described as having served many years in the German diplomatic service, announces amid great applause that the facts of the situation contradict the conciliatory words of the French Foreign Office. He announces that France has not respected either the letter or the spirit pf the Algeciras agreement, consequently, Germany is released from her obligations incurred under this treaty, and that a free hand is restored to her which should be actively used for the preservation of such German interests in the country as have not been destroyed by French control.

Herr Von Rath denounces the dispatch of the flying column of French calvary to Fez as merely a pretext for her scheme of military interpenetration of Morocco. He says the German policy should be somewa=hat as follows and while, of course, the policy represents only a deputy's point of view, it has been received with such popular favor that it may at any moment be taken up by the Government as its own. He does not believe that the rebellion in Morocco is dangerous, or that anarchy is near; but, if he is mistaken, he says let the rebellion be crushed and order restored by French troops. Then let us, we Germans, insist upon the Shereefian sway being restored independently of any single power, and that it then be supervised and influenced, so far as possible, by the totality of the States which are commercially interested there, France not being allowed to put forward any special claim. France, as well as other countries, has often pulled the chestnuts out of the fire. But probably never has this been done after such fair warning has been given that he of the burnt paw is not allowed to enjoy the savory nut!

The facts of the Moroccan crisis, in so far as they have to deal with the Moroccan situation and not with the Bagdad railway or with Monsieur Delcassé, are embodied in the Franco-German agreement, which was signed in 1909 by Von Schoen, representing Germany, and Jules Gambon, representing France. In this exchange of notes the Imperial German Government acknowledged explicitly France's special rights in Morocco, the exercise of which, of course, is only possible in the tranquil, and not in a disorderly Sultanate; and it was certainly understood that Germany would not seek to handicap France in any measures it might be found necessary to take for the preservation of her interests and those of the other powers concerned. From the agreement that was reached, it is clear that Germany admitted at this time she possessed only economic interests in Morocco, and that, consequently, France is bound only to bestow upon German commerce and industry the same rights and the same protection that are bestowed upon every other nation doing business in the country. This treaty of 1909 was certainly a far reaching concession on the part of Germany toward France, and, as was suspected at the time though never definitely known, France paid heavily for her free hand in Morocco by concessions in other quarters. In view of the agreement, it seemed certain that the Emperor of Germany had completely abandoned the nagging policy toward France in Morocco, which had been pursued for so many years anterior to the Algeciras agreement. The only problem that the Moroccan question seemed still to contain was weather the French policy of peaceful penetration would be crowned with success and Morocco become a Gallic dependency without passing through the preliminary stage of long-drawn-out guerrilla warfare on the Algerian frontier and in the Atlas fastnesses. This dream is now rudely dispelled. Germany interferes again in Morocco. She sends the Panther, that stormy petrel of Germany's overseas policy which has raise trouble in Hayti and in Venezuela, and now again appears at Agadir, Morocco's open roadstead on the Atlantic Coast which, however, gives access to the rich Moorish province of the Sus.

Having shown her hand in sending the gunboat Panther to Agadir, Morocco, Germany is awaiting the action of France, which, it is expected, will be taken only after consultations with Great Britain and Russia.

Turkey began military preparations to suppress a revolt in Montenegro

July 5, 1911: From the New York Times news sources:

TURKEY PREPARES FOR WAR.

But Officials Affect to Believe Montenegro is Bluffing.

CONSTANTINOPLE, July 5.— Preparations have been advance a further stage for the general mobilization of Turkish troops, in view of the continued refusal of the rebellious Albanians to surrender and of the activity of the Montenegrin forces along the frontier.

The Government officials at the same time continue to express optimism regarding an ultimate peaceful outcome. They assert that the Montenegrin Government is bluffing. The recall of the Turkish Minister at Cettinje is considered not probable.

from the Toronto World: 
VIENNA, July 5. — Telegrams received here to-say from Centije, the capital of Montenegro, say that King Nicholas is sending 7000 troops to patrol the border passes and prevent the Albanian rebels from entering Montenegro. The king declares his intentions are entirely pacific, and that he will keep peace as long as he is not attacked.


BUDAPEST, July, 5. — Premier Count Khuen von Hedervary, speaking in the lower house to-day, said that the powers closely associated with the Albanian question had come to an agreement for the purpose of bringing about a solution. He believed therefore that no differences were likely to arise that would result in a war.

SMS Berlin Deployed/ Cartoons of Moroccan Crisis

July 4, 1911:  On this date, the German Foreign Office announces that the recently arrived gunboat SMS Panther, into the port of Agadir, on the Moroccan Atlantic Coast, will be relived by the much larger cruiser SMS Berlin. The Berlin is three times larger that the Panther. The German response is to the deployment of French and Spanish forces to quell an uprising against the Moroccan Sultan. The move by German is in an attempt to prevent a land-grab by the French, further isolating Germany in what they considered another act of encirclement.

As these events play out, the world press presents a more humorous aspect to characterize the Moroccan Crisis of 1911

Moroccan Crisis Deepens

July 3, 1911: On this date, the German gunboat SMS Panther reaches Agadir. There is fear that Germany may use this port to establish an Atlantic base.

From the New York Times dated July 3:
"Having shown her hand in sending the gunboat Panther to Agadir, Morocco, Germany is awaiting the action of France, which, it is expected, will be taken only after consultations with Great Britain and Russia.
It is hoped here that the step taken by the German Foreign Office will lead to a general discussion of the Moroccan situation by the four principally interested powers, through which discussion the question will be definitely settled. Otherwise the Germans will remain in Morocco until the Franco-Spanish expeditions have been withdrawn. A general European conference is not expected.
France thus far has confined her comment as an expression of "disagreeable surprise" over the dispatch of the Panther."

In the English House of Commons, prime minister Herbert Henry Asquith when asked by Lord John Lyttelton, who will fight in Gallipoli, responds:

Mr. LYTTELTON

May I ask the Prime Minister whether there is any information which he can usefully give to the House with regard to the reported action of Germany in Morocco?

  Mr. ASQUITH

Perhaps the right hon. Gentleman will kindly postpone the question until to-morrow.

The response is consistent with the prime minister's outlook on foreign and war time affairs.

World Stands Aghast at Albanian Atrocities

 July 2, 1911: The New York Times publishes a detailed account of the atrocities against Albanians. Just days after the region's tour by Sultan Mehmed V, the plight of the Albanians, seeking independence from the Ottoman Empire, was presented to the American public. Descriptions of Ottoman actions to control the Albanian uprising, with the subtitle, "Massacre and Pillage by the Young Turks in their War to Curtail the Province's Ancient Rights Rival the Awful Scenes of Horror in Bulgaria and Armenia", offer great insight into what actions the failing Empire would take against rebellious ethnic groups in the Balkan War of 1912, as well as the massacres of World War I. The title hearkens to the brutal suppression of the Armenians in the late 1890's, where an estimated 100,000 or more Armenian citizens were slaughtered.

Faik Bey Konitza was a primary focal point in the article, as he sought to raise funds for the Albanian nationalists, from an estimated 30,000 Albanians in the U.S. as well as immigrated Greeks and other regional ethnic groups, "inclined to look with favor on anyone fighting against the Turks"

"In the three years that this insurrection has been going on", the famous Albanian writer Konitza recounted, "over three hundred Albanian villages have been destroyed by the Turks". From ten to fifteen thousand of my fellow countrymen have been massacred - seven hundred of them children. Fifty thousand men, women and children are starving to death - the crops have been laid to waste by the Turks."

In one particularly chilling statement, "...the Albanian women would rather commit suicide than fall into the hands of the enemy. For the young Turks are morally decadent, and only one fate awaits the women captives."

Just a few years earlier the Albanians had hope the the Young Turks take over of the Ottoman Empire would lead to less repression. However, the new leaders reneged on their promise to give regional ethnic groups more autonomy and became as repressive as any previous regime.